PubMed: 26195256

Title
Clearance systems in the brain-implications for Alzheimer disease.
Journal
Nature reviews. Neurology
Volume
11
Issue
None
Pages
457-70
Date
2015-08-01
Authors
Zetterberg H | Tarasoff-Conway JM | de Leon MJ | Axel L | Blennow K | Butler T | Carare RO | Fieremans E | Frangione B | Glodzik L | Ménard J | Nicholson C | Osorio RS | Rusinek H | Wisniewski T | Zlokovic BV

Evidence e43a5657a0

Given the size of AD-related proteins, mono- meric Aβ1-40, Aβ1-42 and tau, should be able to pass freely through astrocytic endfeet clefts at the glial barrier.72

Evidence 0e5b0da487

In addition, insulin-degrading enzyme has been proposed to have a role in Aβ clearance through the BBB, which might explain why BBB clearance is sensitive to insulin.144

Evidence 1597fe5b1b

Aβ is cleared along perivascular drainage pathways.83 In both AD44,160 and CAA44 (commonly associated with AD84), perivascular drainage of Aβ is impaired.

Evidence ba30a0e8c7

In the early 2000s, mouse studies demonstrated that the majority (75%) of extracellular Aβ (eAβ) is cleared by the BBB, with only a minority (10%) being cleared by ISF bulk flow.

Evidence cfb228fb4c

Third, ApoE4 is also associated with lower antioxidant activity than other ApoE isoforms,154,155 and it mediates BBB breakdown through a proinflammatory pathway involving cyclophilin A in pericytes.

Evidence ee228244c5

The gross pathological changes consist of brain atrophy, particularly in the hippocampal formation, temporal lobes and parietotemporal cortices, accompanied by cortical thinning, enlarged ventricles and white matter abnormalities, as evident on MRI.

Evidence a9b9893b8c

Specifically, ISF Aβ can be taken up by microglia and astrocytes, whereas perivascular Aβ can be degraded by vascular smooth muscle cells, perivascular macrophages, and astrocytes

Evidence 4ae4a4fd32

Extracellular degradation of ISF proteins mainly consists of degradation by proteases expressed and secreted by cells such as astrocytes

Evidence f65463de96

Second, both Aβ and insulin are ligands that compete for degradation by insulin-degrading enzyme; thus, hyper- insulinaemia can reduce clearance of Aβ, which might partly explain the link between type 2 diabetes mellitus and AD.

Evidence deda2a00bc

Soluble Aβ can be removed from the brain by various clearance systems, including enzymatic degradation and cellular uptake, transport across the blood–brain barrier (BBB) and blood–cerebrospinal fluid barrier (BCSFB), interstitial fluid (ISF) bulk flow, and cerebro- spinal fluid (CSF) absorption into the circulatory and lymphatic systems.

Evidence 225b0d1188

Intracellular degradation of proteins occurs via the ubiquitin– proteasome pathway, the autophagy–lysosome pathway, and the endosome–lysosome pathway.56

Evidence 4f40d1e2d9

These findings are in line with evidence suggesting that increased oxi- dative stress157 and loss of vascular integrity contribute to ageing158 and AD,159 as demonstrated by accelerated breakdown of the BBB and the neurovascular unit.

Evidence 9d52fecfad

When characterized by autosomal dominant inheritance, EOAD is related to mutations in the presenilin 1 (PSEN1), presenilin 2 (PSEN2) or amyloid precursor protein (APP) genes.

Evidence 385d67fa9e

ecifically, Aβ accumulation into extracellular plaques is marked by decreased CSF levels of Aβ1–42, and tau accumulation into NFTs is marked by increased CSF levels of total tau and hyperphosphory- lated tau.

Evidence 3dc5563247

The strongest identified genetic risk factor for LOAD is the apolipoprotein E (APOE) ε4 allele (APOE*ε4),

Evidence 9281b0e27c

The pres- ence of ApoE4 is associated with reduced perivascular drainage of Aβ,161 which in turn is linked to deposition of immune complexes.

Evidence 724875a847

These findings support the link between TBI and tau aggre- gation, with resulting neurodegeneration similar to that seen in AD and chronic traumatic encephalopathy

Evidence 94c200bd20

Clearance of Aβ through the BBB is also medi- ated by α2-macroglobulin (α2M),14 and LDLR-related protein 2 (LRP2, also known as megalin) when LRP2 forms a complex with clusterin (also known as ApoJ).

Evidence eaccc4c249

The main ABC transporter responsible for Aβ efflux is ABCB1 (also known as P-glycoprotein 1 or MDR1),which directly exports Aβ into the circulation.

Evidence 1d98d52e33

The main ABC transporter responsible for Aβ efflux is ABCB1 (also known as P-glycoprotein 1 or MDR1), which directly exports Aβ into the circulation.

Evidence 84961d0858

In AD, these factors are impaired in a number of ways. First, expression of the blood efflux transporters LRP1123 and ABCB1147 is decreased, whereas expression of the blood influx transporter RAGE is upregulated.

Evidence 235d35b3a7

Extracellular Aβ can also be degraded by proteases, such as neprily- sin (a membrane-anchored zinc metalloendopeptidase that degrades the Aβ monomers Aβ1-40 and Aβ1-42, and Aβ oligomers),119 matrix metalloproteinases 2, 3 and 9,120 glutamate carboxypeptidase II,121 endothelin-converting enzyme,122 tissue plasminogen activator,123 plasmin,120 angiotensin-converting enzyme,120 and insulin-degrading enzyme.

Evidence cb36ed5e5d

Free Aβ can be transported from the circulation into the interstitium via RAGE (advanced glycosylation end product-specific receptor).

Evidence e4f12e8c71

which is located on the abluminal side of the brain endo- thelium,140 does not directly bind and extrude Aβ,141 but mediates Aβ clearance in an ApoE-dependent manner.

Evidence 0a6607f83b

ApoE is a cholesterol transporter that competes with Aβ for efflux by LRP1 from the interstitium into the circula- tion;

Evidence e6093816f1

competition for shared receptors is the primary mechanism by which ApoE mediates Aβ clearance

Evidence e5856c8a48

However, two-photon imaging studies from the past few years have suggested that ISF bulk flow—facilitated by astroglial aquaporin-4 (AQP4) channels and named the glymphatic (glial + lymphatic) system—contributes to a larger portion of eAβ clearance than previously thought.

Evidence 82b15b1856

If APP is first cleaved by β-secretase 1 (also known as BACE1) instead of α-secretase, the subsequent γ-secretase cleavage will result in soluble monomeric Aβ.

Evidence 87ad7eed5d

although genome-wide association studies have linked LOAD to several other genetic variants, such as TREM2 (triggering receptor expressed on myeloid cells 2),27 clusterin (CLU),28 and phosphatidylinositol-binding clathrin assembly protein (PICALM).28,29

Evidence be93284492

Some evidence suggests that LRP1 is the main transporter for Aβ efflux at the BBB, whereas other studies have demonstrated its role to be quite minor.

Evidence 6284deef94

Specifically, local soluble Aβ is transferred from the interstitium to the brain by LDL receptor (LDLR) family members such as LRP1, and ATP-binding cassette transporters (ABC transporters).

Evidence 74cb6ae08b

Phosphorylation of tau by protein kinase A increases its resistance to degradation by calpain

Evidence 88c2585f42

APP is cleaved by α-secretase, which precludes forma- tion of Aβ, and the resulting carboxy-terminal fragment is then cleaved by γ-secretase.103 The resulting products do not aggregate.104

Evidence 3a39d3a6ab

Intracellular Aβ (iAβ) can be degraded by proteasomes via the ubiquitin–proteasome pathway in neurons,116 lyso- somal cathepsin enzymes,117 proteases (such as insulin- degrading enzyme, a thiol metalloendopeptidase that degrades monomeric Aβ) and insulin.

Evidence eb1fdd77e9

Tau is mainly cleared through intracellular degrada- tion by lysosomes via the autophagy–lysosome pathway, and by proteasomes via the ubiquitin–proteasome pathway.202

Evidence 910a9388a0

Recent mouse studies suggest that the AQP4-dependent glymphatic pathway is an important clearance system for driving the removal of soluble Aβ from the interstitium.

Evidence dd11214097

Of note, a high-fat prenatal maternal diet has recently been reported to result in a failure of Aβ clearance along cerebrovascular basement membranes.

Evidence 682019d1f4

Emerging evidence suggests that Aβ clearance is impaired in both early-onset and late-onset forms of AD.

Evidence e40678b95e

Various factors have been reported to positively and negatively modulate the risk of LOAD. Specifically, the greatest overall risk factor for LOAD is ageing;

Evidence ff7847406c

Known envi- ronmental risk factors for LOAD include cardiovascular disease, and factors conferring a risk of cardiovascu- lar disease, such as diabetes mellitus and hypertension. Head trauma, physical and mental inactivity, and sleep impairment are additional risk factors for LOAD

Evidence 6bd0aa8d6e

Recent advances now enable several AD-related brain changes to be detected in vivo: 18F-FDG-PET detects decreases in glucose metabolism,45,46 and MRI detects brain atrophy, as well as diffusion and perfu- sion abnormalities, which are most prominent in the vul- nerable hippocampal formation and cortical regions.

Evidence fbee260d84

First, expression of neprilysin is decreased in AD,126 especially in regions with high Aβ loads such as the hippocampus and temporal gyrus.127

Evidence 0a3286d0b6

Although overall matrix metallo- proteinase 2 expression is increased in AD,58 its activity is reduced in astrocytes that surround Aβ plaques.

Evidence 7d3da532b3

In AD, the choroid plexus undergoes many structural changes, such as calcification, fibrosis and Aβ deposition, all of which can obstruct CSF production.

Evidence f2aa4b489c

These findings might partly explain why sleep impairment increases the risk of AD

Evidence d9ea6af1b9

First, in ageing, and particularly in AD, CSF production by the choroid plexus is reduced, as shown by decreased water secretion into the ventricles via AQP1 water channels.

Evidence 18c3e9a5a6

Inflammation, a common feature of AD, can affect ligand affinity by making the pH more acidic, which promotes hyperphosphorylation of tau and induces conforma- tional changes in Aβ that hinder its clearance.

Evidence 85bfec3645

Thus, sleep could indirectly increase BBB clearance of Aβ through increased glymphatic bulk flow, but it might also directly increase clearance through the BBB via various mechanisms, such as molecular changes (for example, upregulated LRP1), as seen with AD-protective physical and cognitive activity in mice.1

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